Nobel Prize in Physics

for foundational discoveries and inventions that enable machine learning with artificial neural networks

John Hopfield

United States of America

Geoffrey Hinton

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter

Pierre Agostini

United States of America

Ferenc Krausz

Austria

Anne L'Huillier

Sweden

for experiments with entangled photons, establishing the violation of Bell inequalities and pioneering quantum information science

Alain Aspect

France

John F. Clauser

United States of America

Anton Zeilinger

Austria

for the physical modelling of Earth’s climate, quantifying variability and reliably predicting global warming

Syukuro Manabe

United States of America

Klaus Hasselmann

Germany

for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity

Roger Penrose

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for theoretical discoveries in physical cosmology

Jim Peebles

United States of America

for the development of optical tweezers and their application to biological systems

Arthur Ashkin

United States of America

for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves

Rainer Weiss

United States of America

Barry Barish

United States of America

Kip Thorne

United States of America

for theoretical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases of matter

David J. Thouless

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America

Duncan Haldane

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Slovenia

Michael Kosterlitz

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America

for the discovery of neutrino oscillations, which shows that neutrinos have mass (Nucl. Phys. B-Proc. Suppl. 77 (1999) 123 〈Kajita〉, 43 〈McDonald〉)

Takaaki Kajita

Japan

Arthur B. McDonald

Canada

for the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which have enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources

Isamu Akasaki

Japan

Hiroshi Amano

Japan

Shuji Nakamura

United States of America

For the theoretical discovery of the Brout–Englert–Higgs mechanism, proposed in 1964, which explains how elementary particles acquire mass and was later confirmed by the observation of the Higgs boson by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider. The award cites the seminal papers Phys. Rev. Lett. 13 (1964) 321 (Englert & Brout), Phys. Rev. Lett. 13 (1964) 508 (Higgs), and Phys. Rev. 145 (1966) 1156 (Higgs).

François Englert

Belgium

Peter Higgs

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for ground-breaking experimental methods that enable measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems

Serge Haroche

France

David J. Wineland

United States of America

for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae (Astrophys. J.: 517 (1999) 565-586; Astrophys. J.: 507 (1998) 46-63; Astron. J.: 116 (1998) 1009-1038)

Saul Perlmutter

United States of America

Brian Schmidt

Australia, United States of America

Adam Riess

United States of America

for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene

Andre Geim

Netherlands

Konstantin Novoselov

Russian Federation, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication

Charles K. Kao

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America

for the discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics (Phys. Rev. 117 (1960) 648; Phys. Rev. 122 (1961) 345-358; Phys. Rev. 124 (1961) 246-254)

Yoichiro Nambu

United States of America

Discovery of Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR). Key papers: M.N. Baibich et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 61 (1988) 2472–2475 (Fert group) and G. Binasch et al., Phys. Rev. B 39 (1989) 4828–4830 (Grünberg group).

Albert Fert

France

Peter Grünberg

Germany

for the discovery of the black-body form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation (Astrophys. J. 420 (1994) 439-444; Astrophys. J. 464 (1996) L1-L4)

John C. Mather

United States of America

George F. Smoot

United States of America

For his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence. In a series of papers, including Phys. Rev. Lett. 10 (1963) 84-86, Phys. Rev. 130 (1963) 2529-2539, and Phys. Rev. 131 (1963) 2766-2788, he created a consistent framework that treats light as both particles and waves.

Roy J. Glauber

United States of America

for the theoretical discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction, as reported in a series of papers (Phys. Rev. Lett. 30 (1973) 1343–1346; Phys. Rev. D 8 (1973) 3633–3652; Phys. Rev. D 9 (1974) 980–993; Phys. Rev. Lett. 30 (1973) 1346–1349; Phys. Rep. 14 (1974) 129–180).

David J. Gross

United States of America

H. David Politzer

United States of America

Frank Wilczek

United States of America

for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids (Sov. Phys. JETP 5 (1957) 1174–1182; Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 32 (1957) 1442–1452; Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 20 (1950) 1064–1082; Phys. Rev. 140 (1965) A1869–A1888; Phys. Rev. 147 (1966) 119–130; Phys. Rev. Lett. 29 (1972) 1227–1230; Phys. Rev. Lett. 31 (1973) 352–355; Rev. Mod. Phys. 47 (1975) 331–414; Phys. Rev. Lett. 46 (1981) 211–214)

Alexei A. Abrikosov

United States of America, Russian Federation

Vitaly L. Ginzburg

Russian Federation

Anthony J. Leggett

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America

for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos

Raymond Davis Jr.

United States of America

Masatoshi Koshiba

Japan

for the achievement of Bose–Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates (Science 269, 198–201, 1995; Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 420–423, 1996; Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 3969–3973, 1995).

Eric A. Cornell

United States of America

Wolfgang Ketterle

Germany

Carl E. Wieman

United States of America

for basic work on information and communication technology (for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed and opto-electronics)

Zhores I. Alferov

Russian Federation

Herbert Kroemer

Germany

for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics (Nucl. Phys. B7 (1968) 637-650, B33 (1971) 173-199, B35 (1971) 167-188, B44 (1972) 189-213, B50 (1972) 318-353)

Gerardus 't Hooft

Netherlands

Martinus J. G. Veltman

Netherlands

for the discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations

Robert B. Laughlin

United States of America

Horst L. Störmer

Germany

Daniel C. Tsui

United States of America

for the development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light

Steven Chu

United States of America

Claude Cohen-Tannoudji

France

William D. Phillips

United States of America

for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3 (Phys. Rev. Lett. 28, 885–888 (1972); Phys. Rev. Lett. 29, 920–923 (1972); Phys. Rev. A 8, 1633–1637 (1973))

David M. Lee

United States of America

Douglas D. Osheroff

United States of America

Robert C. Richardson

United States of America

Pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics (discovery of the tau lepton) Phys. Rev. Lett. 35 (1975) 1489–1492, Phys. Lett. B 63 (1976) 466–470

Martin L. Perl

United States of America

for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter (development of neutron spectroscopy) Phys. Rev. 111(1958) 747-754; Rev. Mod. Phys. 30(1958) 236-249 (erratum 30(1958) 1177); Phys. Rev. Lett. 2(1959) 256-258; Phys. Rev. 119(1960) 980-999

Bertram N. Brockhouse

Canada

for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation (Astrophys. J. Lett. 195 (1975) L51-L53; Astrophys. J. Lett. 206 (1976) L53-L58; Astrophys. J. 253 (1982) 908-920; Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A 341 (1992) 117-134; Phys. Rev. D 45 (1992) 1840-1868)

Russell A. Hulse

United States of America

Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr.

United States of America

for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber

Georges Charpak

France

for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers

Pierre-Gilles de Gennes

France

for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics

Jerome I. Friedman

United States of America

Henry W. Kendall

United States of America

Richard E. Taylor

Canada

for the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its application to the hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks (Phys. Rev. 76 (1949) 996; 78 (1950) 695–703; 126 (1962) 603–615, etc.)

Norman F. Ramsey

United States of America

for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino

Leon M. Lederman

United States of America

Melvin Schwartz

United States of America

Jack Steinberger

United States of America

for their important breakthrough in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials (Zeitschrift für Physik B 64 (1986) 189–193, Bednorz & Müller)

J. Georg Bednorz

West Germany

Karl Alexander Müller

Switzerland

for his fundamental work in electron optics, particularly for the design of the first electron microscope

for the discovery of the quantized Hall effect (Phys. Rev. Lett. 45, 494–497, 1980; Metrologia 21, 11–19, 1985)

Klaus von Klitzing

West Germany

for their decisive contributions to the large project that led to the discovery of the W and Z particles, mediators of the weak interaction

Carlo Rubbia

Italy

Simon van der Meer

Netherlands

for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars (Philos. Mag. 11 (1931) 592; Astrophys. J. 74 (1931) 81; Astrophys. J. 96 (1942) 161)

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

United States of America

for his theory for critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions (Phys. Rev. B 4, 3174-3183 (1971); Phys. Rev. B 4, 3184-3205 (1971); Phys. Rev. Lett. 28, 240-243 (1972); Phys. Rev. Lett. 28, 548-551 (1972); Phys. Rep. 12, 75-199 (1974); Rev. Mod. Phys. 47, 773-840 (1975))

for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy (Phys. Rev. 104 (1956) 324-327, Phys. Rev. 127 (1962) 1918-1939)

Nicolaas Bloembergen

United States of America

Arthur Leonard Schawlow

United States of America

for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons

James Cronin

United States of America

Val Logsdon Fitch

United States of America

for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, in particular the prediction of the weak neutral current

Sheldon Lee Glashow

United States of America

Abdus Salam

Pakistan

Steven Weinberg

United States of America

for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics

Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa

Soviet Union

for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems

Philip Warren Anderson

United States of America

Sir Nevill Francis Mott

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

John Hasbrouck Van Vleck

United States of America

for their pioneering work leading to the discovery of a new, heavy elementary particle, the J/ψ meson (Phys. Rev. Lett. 33 (1974) 1404-1406, 1406-1408, 1408-1410 and related papers; early hint in Phys. Rev. Lett. 25 (1970) 1523-1526).

Burton Richter

United States of America

Samuel Chao Chung Ting

United States of America

for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection

Aage Niels Bohr

Denmark

Ben Roy Mottelson

Denmark

Leo James Rainwater

United States of America

for his pioneering research in radio astrophysics, especially his observations and inventions related to the aperture-synthesis technique

for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and in superconductors, respectively (Phys. Rev. Lett. 5 (1960) 147-148; 464-466)

Leo Esaki

Japan

Ivar Giaever

United States of America

for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS theory (Phys. Rev. 108, 1175-1204, 1957)

John Bardeen

United States of America

Leon Neil Cooper

United States of America

John Robert Schrieffer

United States of America

for his invention and development of the holographic method (Nature 161 (1948) 777–779, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 197 (1949) 454, Proc. Phys. Soc. B 64 (1951) 449)

Dennis Gabor

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for fundamental work and discoveries in magnetohydro-dynamics with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics

Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén

Sweden

for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions (Phys. Rev. 92 (1953) 833-834, Phys. Rev. 125 (1962) 1067-1084, Phys. Lett. 8 (1964) 214-215)

Murray Gell-Mann

United States of America

for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis

Luis Walter Alvarez

United States of America

for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars

Hans Albrecht Bethe

United States of America

for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms

Alfred Kastler

France

for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles

Shin-ichiro Tomonaga

Japan

Julian Schwinger

United States of America

Richard P. Feynman

United States of America

for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle

Charles Hard Townes

United States of America

Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov

Soviet Union

Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov

Soviet Union

for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles

Eugene Paul Wigner

United States of America

for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium

Lev Davidovich Landau

Soviet Union

for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and the resulting discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons (Phys. Rev. Lett. 5 (1960) 263–265; Phys. Rev. Lett. 6 (1961) 293–296)

Robert Hofstadter

United States of America

for the invention of the bubble chamber, Phys. Rev. 87 (1952) 665-665

Donald Arthur Glaser

United States of America

for the discovery of the antiproton (Phys. Rev. 100 (1955) 947-950)

Emilio Gino Segrè

United States of America

Owen Chamberlain

United States of America

for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect (C.R. Acad. Sci. USSR: 2 (1934) 451; 14 (1937) 107)

Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov

Soviet Union

Ilya Mikhailovich Frank

Soviet Union

Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm

Soviet Union

for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws, which led to important discoveries regarding elementary particles (Phys. Rev. 104 (1956) 254-258; Phys. Rev. 106 (1957) 340-345; Phys. Rev. 105 (1957) 1413-1417)

Chen Ning Yang

United States of America

Tsung-Dao Lee

United States of America

for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect

William Bradford Shockley

United States of America

John Bardeen

United States of America

Walter Houser Brattain

United States of America

for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum

Willis Eugene Lamb

United States of America

for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction

Max Born

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for his demonstration of the phase-contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase-contrast microscope

Frits (Frederik) Zernike

Netherlands

for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith

Felix Bloch

Switzerland

Edward Mills Purcell

United States of America

for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles

Sir John Douglas Cockcroft

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton

Ireland

for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method

Cecil Frank Powell

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces (Proc. Phys. Math. Soc. Jap. 17, 48 (1935))

Hideki Yukawa

Japan

for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation

Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere, especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer

Sir Edward Victor Appleton

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made therewith in the field of high pressure physics

Percy Williams Bridgman

United States of America

for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli Principle (original paper: Zeitschrift für Physik 31 (1925) 765-783)

Wolfgang Pauli

United States of America

for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei

Isidor Isaac Rabi

United States of America

for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton

Otto Stern

United States of America

for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for the results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements

Ernest Orlando Lawrence

United States of America

for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow (thermal) neutrons

Enrico Fermi

Kingdom of Italy

for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals

Clinton Joseph Davisson

United States of America

George Paget Thomson

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discovery of cosmic rays (Phys. Z.:13(1912) 1084-1091)

Victor Franz Hess

Austria

for the discovery of the neutron (Nature 129 (1932) 312)

James Chadwick

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory. Key papers: E. Schrödinger, Phys. Rev. 28 (1926) 1049-1070; P. A. M. Dirac, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 117 (1928) 610-624; 118 (1928) 351-361; 133 (1931) 60-72

Erwin Schrödinger

Austria

Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen

Werner Karl Heisenberg

German Reich

for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the Raman effect named after him

Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman

British Indian Empire

for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons

Prince Louis-Victor Pierre Raymond de Broglie

France

for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him (Richardson’s law)

Owen Willans Richardson

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for his discovery of the Compton effect, named after him

Arthur Holly Compton

United States of America

for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., 8th series, 18 (1909) 5-114)

Jean Baptiste Perrin

France

for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom

James Franck

German Reich

Gustav Ludwig Hertz

German Reich

for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy

Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn

Sweden

for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect (e.g., Phys. Mag. XIX:6 (1910) 209; Phys. Rev. 2 (1913) 109-143)

Robert Andrews Millikan

United States of America

for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them

Niels Henrik David Bohr

Denmark

for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect

Albert Einstein

Switzerland

for the discovery of the Invar alloy and its subsequent development of precision measurement

Charles Edouard Guillaume

Switzerland

for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields

Johannes Stark

German Reich

for the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta (Annalen der Physik 1 (1900) 719; 4 (1901) 553)

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck

German Empire

for his discovery of the characteristic X-ray radiation of the elements

Charles Glover Barkla

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays

Sir William Henry Bragg

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

William Lawrence Bragg

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals

Max von Laue

German Empire

for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium

Heike Kamerlingh Onnes

Netherlands

for his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys

Nils Gustaf Dalén

Sweden

for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat

Wilhelm Wien

German Empire

for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids

Johannes Diderik van der Waals

Netherlands

for their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy

Guglielmo Marconi

Kingdom of Italy

Karl Ferdinand Braun

German Empire

for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference (Lippmann colour photography)

Gabriel Lippmann

France

for his optical precision instruments—especially the Michelson interferometer—and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid

Albert Abraham Michelson

United States of America

for his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases

Joseph John Thomson

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for his work on cathode rays

Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard

German Empire

for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies

Lord Rayleigh(John William Strutt)

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discovery of spontaneous radioactivity

Antoine Henri Becquerel

France

for their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena

Hendrik Antoon Lorentz

Netherlands

Pieter Zeeman

Netherlands

for the discovery of the remarkable radiation later named X-rays (Nature 53 (1896) 274–276)

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen

German Empire