Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Victor Ambros

United States of America

for the discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional gene regulation

Gary Ruvkun

United States of America

for the discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional gene regulation

Katalin Karikó

Hungary, United States of America

for their discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19

Drew Weissman

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19

Svante Pääbo

Sweden

for his discoveries concerning the genomes of extinct hominins and human evolution

David Julius

United States of America

for the discovery of receptors for temperature and touch

Ardem Patapoutian

United States of America (Lebanon)

for the discovery of receptors for temperature and touch

Harvey J. Alter

United States of America

for the discovery of the Hepatitis C virus

Michael Houghton

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discovery of the Hepatitis C virus

Charles M. Rice

United States of America

for the discovery of the Hepatitis C virus

William Kaelin Jr.

United States of America

for their discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability

Peter J. Ratcliffe

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability

Gregg L. Semenza

United States of America

for their discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability

James P. Allison

United States of America

for the discovery of immune-checkpoint inhibitors and their application to cancer therapy

Tasuku Honjo

Japan

for the discovery of immune-checkpoint inhibitors and their application to cancer therapy

Jeffrey C. Hall

United States of America

for the discovery of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm

Michael Rosbash

United States of America

for the discovery of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm

Michael W. Young

United States of America

for the discovery of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm

Yoshinori Ohsumi

Japan

for the discoveries of mechanisms for autophagy

William C. Campbell

Ireland, United States of America

for their discoveries concerning a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites

Satoshi Ōmura

Japan

for their discoveries concerning a novel therapy against infections caused by roundworm parasites

Tu Youyou

China

for her discoveries concerning a novel therapy against Malaria

John O'Keefe

United States of America, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discovery of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain

May-Britt Moser

Norway

for the discovery of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain

Edvard I. Moser

Norway

for the discovery of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain

Randy Schekman

United States of America

for the discoveries of the machinery that regulates vesicle traffic, the system that transports proteins to their correct destinations inside cells

James Rothman

United States of America

for the discoveries of the machinery that regulates vesicle traffic, the system that transports proteins to their correct destinations inside cells

Thomas C. Südhof

United States of America (Germany)

for the discoveries of the machinery that regulates vesicle traffic, the system that transports proteins to their correct destinations inside cells

John Gurdon

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent

Shinya Yamanaka

Japan

for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent

Bruce Beutler

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity

Jules A. Hoffmann

France (Luxembourg)

for their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity

Ralph M. Steinman

Canada

for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity

Robert G. Edwards

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the development of in vitro fertilization (IVF) technology

Elizabeth H. Blackburn

United States of America, Australia

for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase

Carol W. Greider

United States of America

for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase

Jack W. Szostak

United States of America (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase

Harald zur Hausen

Germany

Discovery of human papillomaviruses causing cervical cancer

Françoise Barré-Sinoussi

France

Discovery of human immunodeficiency virus

Luc Montagnier

France

Discovery of human immunodeficiency virus

Mario Capecchi

United States of America

for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells

Martin Evans

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells

Oliver Smithies

United States of America

for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells

Andrew Fire

United States of America

for the discovery of RNA interference – gene silencing by double-stranded RNA

Craig Mello

United States of America

for the discovery of RNA interference – gene silencing by double-stranded RNA

Barry Marshall

Australia

for the discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease

Robin Warren

Australia

for the discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease

Richard Axel

United States of America

for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system

Linda B. Buck

United States of America

for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system

Paul Lauterbur

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging

Peter Mansfield

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging

Sydney Brenner

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death

H. Robert Horvitz

United States of America

for the discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death

John E. Sulston

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death

Leland H. Hartwell

United States of America

for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle

Tim Hunt

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle

Paul M. Nurse

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle

Arvid Carlsson

Sweden

for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system

Paul Greengard

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system

Eric R. Kandel

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system

Günter Blobel

United States of America

for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell

Robert F. Furchgott

United States of America

for the discovery of nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system

Louis J. Ignarro

United States of America

for the discovery of nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system

Ferid Murad

United States of America

for the discovery of nitric oxide as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system

Stanley B. Prusiner

United States of America

for the discovery of Prions – a new biological principle of infection

Peter C. Doherty

Australia

for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell-mediated immune defence

Rolf M. Zinkernagel

Switzerland

for their discoveries concerning the specificity of the cell-mediated immune defence

Edward B. Lewis

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development

Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard

Germany

for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development

Eric F. Wieschaus

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development

Alfred G. Gilman

United States of America

for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells

Martin Rodbell

United States of America

for their discovery of G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells

Richard J. Roberts

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discovery of split genes

Phillip Allen Sharp

United States of America

for the discovery of split genes

Edmond H. Fischer

Switzerland, United States of America

for the discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism

Edwin G. Krebs

United States of America

for the discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism

Erwin Neher

Germany

for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells

Bert Sakmann

Germany

for their discoveries concerning the function of single ion channels in cells

Joseph E. Murray

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease

E. Donnall Thomas

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease

J. Michael Bishop

United States of America

for the discovery that the oncogenes of retroviruses are of cellular origin

Harold E. Varmus

United States of America

for the discovery that the oncogenes of retroviruses are of cellular origin

James W. Black

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment

Gertrude B. Elion

United States of America

for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment

George H. Hitchings

United States of America

for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment

Susumu Tonegawa

Japan

for his discovery of the genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity

Rita Levi-Montalcini

Italy, United States of America

for their discoveries of growth factors

Stanley Cohen

United States of America

for their discoveries of growth factors

Michael Stuart Brown

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism

Joseph L. Goldstein

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the regulation of cholesterol metabolism

Niels Kaj Jerne

Denmark (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies

Georges J. F. Köhler

Germany

for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies

César Milstein

Argentina, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies

Barbara McClintock

United States of America

for the discovery of mobile genetic elements

Sune Bergström

Sweden

discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances

Bengt I. Samuelsson

Sweden

discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances

John Robert Vane

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

discoveries concerning prostaglandins and related biologically active substances

Roger Wolcott Sperry

United States of America

for discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres

David H. Hubel

United States of America (Canada)

for discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system

Torsten Wiesel

Sweden

for discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system

Baruj Benacerraf

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions

Jean Dausset

France

for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions

George Davis Snell

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions

Godfrey Hounsfield

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the development of computer assisted tomography (CT)

Allan McLeod Cormack

United States of America (South Africa)

for the development of computer assisted tomography (CT)

Daniel Nathans

United States of America

for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics

Hamilton O. Smith

United States of America

for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics

Werner Arber

Switzerland

for the discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to problems of molecular genetics

Roger Guillemin

United States of America (France)

for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain

Andrew Schally

United States of America (Poland)

for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain

Rosalyn Sussman Yalow

United States of America

for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones

Baruch Samuel Blumberg

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases

Daniel Carleton Gajdusek

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases

Renato Dulbecco

United States of America (Italy)

for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell

Howard Martin Temin

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell

David Baltimore

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell

Albert Claude

Belgium

for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell

Christian de Duve

Belgium (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell

George Emil Palade

United States of America (Romania)

for their discoveries concerning the structural and functional organization of the cell

Konrad Lorenz

Austria

for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns

Karl von Frisch

Germany (Austria)

for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns

Nikolaas Tinbergen

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Netherlands)

for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns

Gerald Edelman

United States of America

for the discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies

Rodney Robert Porter

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discoveries concerning the chemical structure of antibodies

Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr.

United States of America

for his discoveries concerning the mechanisms of the action of hormones

Bernard Katz

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Germany)

for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmitters in the nerve terminals and the mechanisms for their storage, release and inactivation

Ulf von Euler

Sweden

for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmitters in the nerve terminals and the mechanisms for their storage, release and inactivation

Julius Axelrod

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmitters in the nerve terminals and the mechanisms for their storage, release and inactivation

Max Delbrück

United States of America (Germany)

for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses

Alfred Hershey

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses

Salvador Luria

United States of America (Italy)

for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses

Robert W. Holley

United States of America

for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis

Har Gobind Khorana

United States of America (British Indian Empire)

for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis

Marshall Warren Nirenberg

United States of America

for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis

Ragnar Granit

Sweden (Finland)

for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye

Haldan Keffer Hartline

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye

George Wald

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye

Francis Peyton Rous

United States of America

discovery of tumour-inducing viruses

Charles Brenton Huggins

United States of America (Canada)

discoveries concerning hormonal treatment of prostatic cancer

François Jacob

France

for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis

André Michel Lwoff

France

for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis

Jacques Monod

France

for their discoveries concerning genetic control of enzyme and virus synthesis

Konrad Emil Bloch

United States of America (Germany)

for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism

Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen

West Germany

for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism

John Carew Eccles

Australia

for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane

Alan Lloyd Hodgkin

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane

Andrew Huxley

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane

James Dewey Watson

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material

Francis Harry Compton Crick

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material

Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, New Zealand

for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material

Georg von Békésy

United States of America (Kingdom of Hungary)

for his discoveries of the physical mechanism of stimulation within the cochlea

Frank Macfarlane Burnet

Australia

for the discovery of acquired immunological tolerance

Peter Medawar

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Brazil)

for the discovery of acquired immunological tolerance

Severo Ochoa de Albornoz

United States of America (Spain)

for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid

Arthur Kornberg

United States of America

for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid

George Wells Beadle

United States of America

for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events

Edward Lawrie Tatum

United States of America

for their discovery that genes act by regulating definite chemical events

Joshua Lederberg

United States of America

for his discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organization of the genetic material of bacteria

Daniel Bovet

Italy (Switzerland)

for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles

André Frédéric Cournand

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system

Dickinson W. Richards

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system

Werner Forssmann

West Germany

for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system

Hugo Theorell

Sweden

for his discoveries concerning the nature and mode of action of oxidation enzymes

John Franklin Enders

United States of America

for the discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue

Thomas Huckle Weller

United States of America

for the discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue

Frederick Chapman Robbins

United States of America

for the discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue

Hans Adolf Krebs

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (Germany)

for the discovery of the citric acid cycle

Fritz Albert Lipmann

United States of America (Germany)

for the discovery of co-enzyme A and its importance for intermediary metabolism

Selman Waksman

United States of America (Ukraine)

for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis

Max Theiler

Union of South Africa

for his discoveries concerning yellow fever and how to combat it

Edward Calvin Kendall

United States of America

for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects

Tadeusz Reichstein

Switzerland (Poland)

for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects

Philip Showalter Hench

United States of America

for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects

Walter Rudolf Hess

Switzerland

for his discovery of the functional organization of the interbrain as a coordinator of the activities of the internal organs

António Egas Moniz

Portugal

for his discovery of the therapeutic value of leucotomy in certain psychoses

Paul Hermann Müller

Switzerland

for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods

Carl Ferdinand Cori

United States of America (Czechoslovakia)

for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen

Gerty Theresa Cori

United States of America (Czechoslovakia)

for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen

Bernardo Alberto Houssay

Argentina

for his discovery of the part played by the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe in the metabolism of sugar

Hermann Joseph Muller

United States of America

for the discovery of the production of mutations by means of X-ray irradiation

Alexander Fleming

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases

Ernst Boris Chain

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases

Howard Walter Florey

Australia

for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases

Joseph Erlanger

United States of America

for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres

Herbert Spencer Gasser

United States of America

for their discoveries relating to the highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibres

Henrik Carl Peter Dam

Denmark

for the discovery of vitamin K

Edward Adelbert Doisy

United States of America

for the discovery of the chemical nature of vitamin K

Gerhard Domagk

Greater German Reich

for the discovery of the antibacterial effects of prontosil

Corneille Jean François Heymans

Belgium

for the discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration

Albert Szent-Györgyi de Nagyrápolt

Kingdom of Hungary

for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid

Henry Hallett Dale

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses

Otto Loewi

United States of America (Germany, Austria)

for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses

Hans Spemann

Greater German Reich

for his discovery of the organizer effect in embryonic development

George Hoyt Whipple

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia

George Richards Minot

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia

William Parry Murphy

United States of America

for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anaemia

Thomas Hunt Morgan

United States of America

for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity

Charles Scott Sherrington

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons

Edgar Douglas Adrian

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for their discoveries regarding the functions of neurons

Otto Heinrich Warburg

German Reich

for his discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme

Karl Landsteiner

Austria

for the discovery of human blood groups

Christiaan Eijkman

Netherlands

Discovery of the antineuritic vitamin (vitamin B1)

Frederick Gowland Hopkins

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Discovery of growth-stimulating vitamins

Charles Jules Henri Nicolle

France

for his work on typhus

Julius Wagner-Jauregg

Austria

for his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica

Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger

Denmark

for his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma and the idea that a parasitic infection can induce cancer

Willem Einthoven

Netherlands

for his discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram

Frederick Grant Banting

Canada

for the discovery of insulin

John James Rickard Macleod

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for the discovery of insulin

Archibald Vivian Hill

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for his discovery relating to the production of heat in the muscle

Otto Fritz Meyerhof

German Reich

for his discovery of the fixed relationship between the consumption of oxygen and the metabolism of lactic acid in the muscle

Schack August Steenberg Krogh

Denmark

for his discovery of the capillary motor regulating mechanism

Jules Bordet

Belgium

for his discoveries relating to immunity

Róbert Bárány

Austro-Hungarian Empire

for his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus

Charles Robert Richet

France

for elucidating the mechanisms and dangers of anaphylaxis (acute hypersensitivity reactions)

Alexis Carrel

France

for his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs

Allvar Gullstrand

Sweden

for his work on the dioptrics of the eye

Albrecht Kossel

German Empire

for contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances

Emil Theodor Kocher

Switzerland

for his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland

Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov

Russian Empire

for their work on immunity

Paul Ehrlich

German Empire

for their work on immunity

Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran

France

for his work on the role played by protozoa in causing diseases

Camillo Golgi

Kingdom of Italy

for their work on the structure of the nervous system

Santiago Ramón y Cajal

Spain

for their work on the structure of the nervous system

Robert Koch

German Empire

for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov

Russian Empire

for his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged

Niels Ryberg Finsen

Denmark

for his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science

Ronald Ross

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

for his work on malaria, by which he showed how it enters the organism and thereby laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it

Emil Adolf von Behring

German Empire

for his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths